Chapter 10 Human Settlements

Human settlements are fundamentally places where people live together in groups of houses or buildings.

Whether it is a small village, a town, or a large city, all are forms of human settlement.

The study of human settlements is a core aspect of human geography because the physical form and organization of a settlement often reflect the relationship between people and their surrounding environment.

A human settlement is defined as a location that is inhabited on a relatively permanent basis.

While individual houses or buildings might be modified, their functions can change, the settlement itself tends to persist over time and in its geographical space.

However, some settlements exist only temporarily, occupied for brief periods, perhaps seasonally.

Classification Of Settlements

Settlements are commonly categorized as either rural or urban.

Despite this widespread distinction, there is no universally agreed-upon definition that clearly separates a village from a town.

Rural Urban Dichotomy

Population size is frequently used as a criterion, but it is not always a consistent measure globally. For example, some large villages in highly populated countries like India or China may have more residents than some smaller towns in Western Europe or the United States.

Traditionally, people in villages were primarily engaged in agriculture or other primary economic activities, while urban populations were involved in secondary and tertiary sectors.

Today, especially in developed countries, this distinction can be blurred as many urban workers choose to reside in villages and commute to the city for work.

The fundamental difference remains the dominant economic activities: urban areas are characterized by occupations in secondary and tertiary sectors, whereas rural areas are dominated by primary occupations such as farming, fishing, forestry, mining, and animal husbandry.

Sub Urbanisation

A recent trend, particularly around large cities, is suburbanization. This involves people moving from congested city centres to cleaner residential areas located just outside the city limits (suburbs).

The motivation is often the desire for a better quality of life, perhaps with more space or a less crowded environment.

Significant suburbs develop around major cities, leading to daily commutes as thousands of people travel from their homes in these suburban areas to their workplaces in the city.

Classifying settlements based on their functions can be more informative than solely relying on population size or occupation mix, although there isn't a uniform international hierarchy of functions.

What is considered a low-level service in one country might be an urban function in another (e.g., a petrol pump in the US vs. India).

Even within the same country, the significance of certain functions can vary regionally based on the local economy.

The availability of facilities also differs; villages in developed countries often have services that are rare in villages of developing or less developed countries.

The Census of India, 1991, provides a specific definition for urban settlements:

• Must have a municipality, corporation, cantonment board, or notified town area committee.
• Minimum population of 5,000 persons.
• At least 75% of male workers must be engaged in non-agricultural activities.
• A population density of at least 400 persons per square kilometre.

Types And Patterns Of Settlements

Human settlements can also be categorized by their shape, internal arrangement (pattern), and form.

Based on shape or how houses are clustered, two major types are identified:

• Compact or Nucleated Settlements: Characterized by houses built very close together in a dense cluster. These often form in fertile plains or river valleys where land is suitable for agriculture and communities are tightly connected, often sharing similar occupations.
• Dispersed Settlements: In contrast, houses are spread far apart, frequently separated by agricultural fields. A shared cultural element, such as a central place of worship or a market, often serves to link the inhabitants despite the physical distance between homes.

Rural Settlements

Rural settlements have the closest and most direct relationship with the land and are typically dominated by primary economic activities (agriculture, animal husbandry, fishing, etc.). Their population size is generally smaller compared to urban settlements.

Water Supply

The availability of water is a critical factor in the location of rural settlements.

Villages are frequently established near reliable water sources like rivers, lakes, or natural springs.

Sometimes, the necessity of water leads people to settle in less ideal locations, such as islands in swamps or low-lying riverbanks.

Settlements located near water bodies (known as 'wet point' settlements) benefit from water for drinking, cooking, and washing. Water sources can also provide irrigation for farming, support fishing for food, and serve as routes for transportation (navigable rivers and lakes).

Land

People tend to settle in areas with fertile land suitable for agriculture, as primary activities like farming are central to rural life.

In Europe, villages historically avoided swampy lowland areas, preferring rolling countryside. In contrast, communities in Southeast Asia often settled near fertile low-lying river valleys and coastal plains ideal for wet rice cultivation.

Upland

Settling on higher ground (upland) that is not prone to flooding is another important consideration for rural settlements, protecting homes and lives from flood damage.

In flood-prone river basins, people often choose to build on natural or artificial elevated features like terraces or levees, which act as "dry points".

In tropical regions, houses are sometimes built on stilts in marshy areas to offer protection from floods, insects, and pests.

Building Material

The proximity and availability of building materials are also important factors for early settlements.

Access to resources like wood or stone nearby is advantageous.

Historically, villages were often located in clearings within forests where wood was readily available.

Building materials vary regionally based on availability: cave dwellings in China's loess regions, mud bricks in the African Savanna, and ice blocks (igloos) used by Eskimos in polar areas.

Defence

During periods of conflict, political instability, or hostility from neighbouring groups, rural settlements were often strategically located on defensive sites, such as hills or islands, to provide protection.

In Nigeria, isolated rock formations (inselbergs) served as good defensive locations. Many historical forts in India are situated on hills or elevated terrain for defensive purposes.

Planned Settlements

Unlike spontaneously chosen sites, planned settlements are deliberately constructed by governments or authorities.

These settlements are established on acquired land, with the government providing housing, water, and other necessary infrastructure.

Examples include villagisation schemes in Ethiopia and the canal colonies developed in India's Indira Gandhi canal command area.

Rural Settlement Patterns

The spatial arrangement of houses within a rural settlement creates its specific pattern. The village site, surrounding topography, and terrain all influence its shape and size.

Rural settlements can be classified by pattern based on their form or shape:

• Linear pattern: Houses are arranged in a line along a prominent feature like a road, railway line, river, canal, or the edge of a valley or levee.
• Rectangular pattern: Found in flat areas (plains or wide valleys) where roads intersect at right angles, creating a grid-like pattern of settlement blocks.
• Circular pattern: Villages developing around a central feature such as a lake or tank. Sometimes planned with a central open space for keeping livestock safe from wild animals.
• Star like pattern: Occurs at locations where multiple roads converge, with houses extending outwards along each road, creating a star shape.
• T-shaped, Y-shaped, Cross-shaped or cruciform settlements:
  • T-shaped settlements develop at a T-junction where three roads meet.
  • Y-shaped settlements form where two roads converge and join a third road, with houses built along these roads.
  • Cross-shaped or cruciform settlements develop at crossroads (intersections of two roads), with houses extending along all four directions.
• Double village: Occurs on both banks of a river where a bridge or ferry facilitates crossing, leading to settlements on both sides that function together.

Problems Of Rural Settlements

Rural settlements in developing countries often face numerous challenges, stemming from their large numbers and inadequate infrastructure.

Providing sufficient water supply is a major issue. In mountainous or arid regions, villagers, particularly women, often have to travel long distances to collect drinking water.

Lack of clean water contributes to the prevalence of water-borne diseases like cholera and jaundice.

Countries in South Asia frequently experience droughts and floods, impacting agriculture that relies on rainfall.

Basic sanitation, such as the absence of toilets and proper garbage disposal, leads to significant health problems.

Housing quality is often poor. Houses constructed from materials like mud, wood, and thatch are vulnerable to damage from heavy rains and floods, requiring constant maintenance. Many houses lack proper ventilation.

Traditional house designs often integrate animal sheds and fodder storage within or very close to the living areas to protect livestock and their food from wild animals.

Inadequate infrastructure, including unpaved roads and limited communication networks, causes isolation. During the rainy season, settlements can become cut off, making it difficult to provide emergency services or access essential supplies.

Providing sufficient healthcare and educational facilities for large, sometimes scattered rural populations is a significant challenge, especially in areas where planned villagisation has not consolidated scattered homes.

Urban Settlements

Rapid growth in urban populations is a relatively recent phenomenon in human history.

For most of history, only a few settlements had populations exceeding a few thousand.

London was the first city to reach a population of one million, around 1810 AD. By 1982, about 175 cities worldwide had passed this milestone.

The proportion of the world's population living in urban areas has increased dramatically, from just 3% in 1800 to 54% in 2017.

Classification Of Urban Settlements

Defining what constitutes an urban area varies considerably from one country to another. Common criteria used for classification include:

• Population Size
• Occupational Structure
• Administrative Setup
• Location
• Functions

Population Size

Population size is a widely used criterion, but the minimum threshold for defining an urban settlement differs significantly between countries.

• Colombia: 1,500 persons
• Argentina and Portugal: 2,000 persons
• U.S.A. and Thailand: 2,500 persons
• India: 5,000 persons
• Japan: 30,000 persons

In India, alongside population size, a density of at least 400 persons per square kilometre and a minimum percentage of non-agricultural workers (75%) are also considered.

Countries with lower overall population density may set a lower minimum population for urban areas (e.g., Denmark, Sweden, Finland use 250 persons). The minimum population for a 'city' specifically can also vary (e.g., 300 in Iceland, 1,000 in Canada and Venezuela).

Occupational Structure

Some countries use the dominant economic activities of the population as a criterion, in addition to population size.

In Italy, a settlement is considered urban if over 50% of its economically active population works in non-agricultural sectors. India uses a threshold of 75% for this criterion in its urban definition.

Administration

The presence of a specific administrative body can classify a settlement as urban, regardless of its population size in some countries.

In India, a settlement with a municipality, Cantonment Board, or Notified Area Council is classified as urban, irrespective of population count.

Similarly, in some Latin American countries like Brazil and Bolivia, any administrative centre is considered urban regardless of its population size.

Location

The physical setting (site) and the relative position (situation) are crucial in understanding urban locations and their development.

The optimal location depends on the urban centre's primary function. For example:

• Holiday resorts: Need attractive scenery.
• Industrial towns: Need proximity to energy or raw material sources.
• Military centres: Need sites offering natural defence.
• Mining towns: Need presence of economically viable mineral deposits.
• Tourist centres: Need appealing landscapes, beaches, unique springs, or historical sites.
• Ports: Require a suitable harbour.

Early urban settlements were located based on the availability of water, building materials, and fertile land. While these factors remain relevant, modern technology allows urban centres to be established far from resource sources (e.g., piped water, transported building materials).

Beyond the immediate site, the situation (location relative to other places and routes) is vital for urban growth. Centres situated near important trade routes or transport nodes often experience rapid development.

Functions Of Urban Centres

Historically, the earliest towns served multiple key functions: administration, trade, industry, defense, and religion.

While the importance of defense and religion as primary functions has decreased in many urban areas, new functions have emerged. Modern specialized urban centres can focus on recreational, residential, transport, mining, manufacturing, and increasingly, information technology activities.

Some contemporary urban functions do not necessarily require strong ties to the immediate rural surroundings, facilitated by modern transport and communication.

Despite performing multiple roles, cities are often characterized by their most dominant function (e.g., Sheffield as an industrial city, London as a port city, Chandigarh as an administrative city).

Larger cities typically exhibit a greater diversity of functions.

Urban functions are dynamic and can change over time. For example, some historical fishing ports in England have transformed into tourism centres, and former market towns have become known for manufacturing.

Towns and cities can be further classified based on their primary functional specialization:

Administrative Towns

These are centres primarily housing government administrative offices. National capitals (New Delhi, Canberra, Beijing, Washington D.C., London) are key examples. Provincial or sub-national capitals (like Chennai in Tamil Nadu, India) also serve administrative functions.

Trading And Commercial Towns

These urban centres are focused on commerce and trade. Examples include agricultural market towns (Winnipeg, Kansas City), financial hubs (Frankfurt, Amsterdam), large inland trading centres (Manchester, St Louis), and crucial transport nodes that facilitate trade (Lahore, Baghdad, Agra).

Cultural Towns

These settlements have significant cultural or religious importance, often serving as centres of pilgrimage. Examples include Jerusalem, Mecca, Jagannath Puri, and Varanasi.

Beyond these main types, cities can also specialize in other functions:

• Health and Recreation (Miami, Panaji)
• Industrial (Pittsburgh, Jamshedpur)
• Mining and Quarrying (Broken Hill, Dhanbad)
• Transport (Singapore, Mughal Sarai)

Urbanisation

Urbanisation is the process of increasing proportion of a country's total population living in urban areas.

The most significant driver of urbanization is rural-to-urban migration, particularly in developing countries, where millions move from rural areas to cities annually seeking better opportunities.

Developed countries experienced rapid urbanization primarily during the 19th century.

Developing countries have seen rapid urbanization mainly in the latter half of the 20th century.

Classification Of Towns On The Basis Of Forms

Urban settlements can exhibit various shapes or forms, such as linear, square, star, or crescent. The specific form, as well as the architecture and style of buildings, are often influenced by the settlement's historical development and cultural traditions.

There are notable differences in planning and development between urban areas in developed and developing countries.

Many cities in developed countries were consciously planned, resulting in more organized layouts (e.g., Canberra).

In contrast, urban settlements in developing countries often evolved organically over time, leading to irregular shapes and unplanned growth, transforming from historical centres (like walled cities) into sprawling urban areas (e.g., many smaller towns in India).

Addis Ababa (The New Flower)

The capital of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, translates to "New Flower," reflecting its relatively recent establishment in 1878.

The city's layout is significantly influenced by its hilly terrain (hill-valley topography).

Roads often radiate outwards from key administrative and commercial centres like the government headquarters, Piazza, Arat, and Amist Kilo roundabouts, adapting to the landscape.

Mercato, the city's main market area, grew over time and is considered one of the largest markets in Africa.

Addis Ababa is a major educational hub with a multi-faculty university, medical college, and numerous schools.

It serves as a significant transport node, being the terminal station for the Djibouti-Addis Ababa railway and home to a relatively new international airport (Bole airport).

The city has experienced rapid growth due to its diverse functions and central location within Ethiopia.

Canberra

Canberra, the capital of Australia, is an example of a deliberately planned city. Designed by American landscape architect Walter Burley Griffin in 1912, it was envisioned as a 'garden city' integrated with the natural landscape, initially planned for a smaller population.

The plan included five distinct centres, each designated for specific city functions.

Over the decades, Canberra has expanded to incorporate satellite towns, each with its own centre.

The city is characterized by ample open spaces, numerous parks, and gardens, reflecting its garden city concept.

Types Of Urban Settlements

Urban centres are categorized into different types based on their size, the range of services they offer, and the functions they perform.

Common types include Town, City, Million City, Conurbation, and Megalopolis.

Town

The concept of a 'town' is best understood in comparison to a 'village'. While population size is a factor, the functional difference is key.

Towns typically have more specific functions than villages, such as manufacturing, wholesale and retail trade, and specialized professional services, even if the functional distinction isn't always perfectly clear-cut.

City

A city is generally considered a prominent or leading town that has grown larger and more influential than its local or regional competitors.

Cities are significantly larger than towns and perform a greater variety of economic functions. They often serve as major transport hubs, house significant financial institutions, and host regional administrative offices.

When a city's population reaches or exceeds one million, it is designated as a million city.

Conurbation

The term 'conurbation', introduced by Patrick Geddes in 1915, refers to a large urban area formed by the merging and growth of previously separate towns or cities.

Examples of conurbations include Greater London, Manchester, Chicago, and Tokyo.

Million City

The number of cities worldwide with a population of one million or more has seen rapid growth over time.

• London reached this status around 1800.
• Paris followed in 1850, and New York in 1860.
• By 1950, there were approximately 80 million cities.
• By the mid-1970s, the number grew to 162.
• A three-fold increase by 2005 brought the total to 438.
• In 2016, there were 512 cities globally with at least 1 million residents.
• Projections suggest that by 2030, this number will reach 662.

Megalopolis

Derived from a Greek word meaning "great city," the term 'megalopolis', popularized by Jean Gottman, describes a 'super-metropolitan' region. It is essentially a vast urban landscape formed by the connection or fusion of multiple conurbations.

The continuous urbanized area stretching along the eastern seaboard of the U.S.A. from Boston in the north to south of Washington is the most well-known example of a megalopolis.

Distribution Of Mega Cities

A mega city (sometimes used interchangeably with megalopolis, though megalopolis often implies a larger, fused region) is a general term for cities, including their suburbs, that have a total population exceeding 10 million people.

New York was the first city to achieve mega city status by 1950, with a population of about 12.5 million.

As of 2016, there were 31 mega cities globally. Notably, the number of mega cities has increased significantly faster in developing countries compared to developed countries over the past 50 years.

Problems Of Human Settlements In Developing Countries

Human settlements, particularly in developing countries, grapple with numerous challenges.

These include unsustainable concentrations of people, overcrowding in housing and streets, and critical shortages of basic amenities like clean drinking water.

Infrastructure deficiencies are widespread, affecting electricity supply, sewage disposal, and the availability of health and education facilities.

Problems Of Urban Settlements

Large numbers of people migrate to cities seeking better job prospects and urban facilities. However, especially in developing countries where urban growth is often unplanned, this leads to severe congestion.

Major issues characteristic of cities in developing countries include:

• Shortage of adequate housing.
• Increased vertical expansion (taller buildings) and the proliferation of slums and squatter settlements.

A significant portion of the urban population in these areas lives in substandard, often illegal, housing. In India, for instance, in cities with over a million people, about one-quarter of residents live in informal settlements that are growing rapidly. Across Asia-Pacific, roughly 60% of the urban population resides in squatter settlements.

Economic Problems

Limited employment opportunities in rural areas and smaller towns in developing countries drive continuous migration to cities.

This creates a large pool of unskilled and semi-skilled labour, which often exceeds the available jobs in urban areas, leading to underemployment and economic insecurity for many migrants.

Socio-Cultural Problems

Cities in developing countries often face significant social challenges. Insufficient financial resources hinder the development of adequate social infrastructure needed to serve large populations.

Essential services like education and healthcare facilities are often unaffordable or inaccessible for the urban poor.

Health indicators in cities of developing countries frequently reflect poor conditions.

Lack of employment and educational opportunities can contribute to higher crime rates.

Male-dominated migration to urban areas can distort the sex ratio in cities, creating social imbalances.

Environmental Problems

Large urban populations generate and dispose of vast quantities of water and waste materials, posing significant environmental challenges.

Many cities struggle to provide sufficient clean drinking water and water for domestic and industrial use.

Inadequate sewage systems create unsanitary conditions and health risks.

Extensive use of traditional fuels for cooking and in industries leads to severe air pollution.

Domestic and industrial waste is often discharged untreated into sewage systems or dumped in inappropriate locations.

The dense clusters of buildings (concrete structures) in cities absorb and retain heat, contributing to the formation of urban heat islands, making cities significantly warmer than surrounding rural areas.

Urban Strategy

The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has outlined priorities within its 'Urban Strategy' to address challenges in urban settlements. These priorities include:

• Increasing shelter for the urban poor.
• Ensuring provision of basic services like education, primary healthcare, clean water, and sanitation.
• Improving women's access to basic services and government facilities.
• Upgrading energy use and promoting alternative transport systems.
• Reducing air pollution.

What Is A Healthy City?

The World Health Organisation (WHO) defines key characteristics of a 'healthy city', including:

• Maintaining a clean and safe environment.
• Meeting the basic needs of all its inhabitants.
• Actively involving the community in local governance.
• Providing easily accessible health services.

Urban, rural, and town settlements are interconnected through the movement of goods, resources, and people. The linkages between urban and rural areas are vital for the long-term sustainability of human settlements overall.

The faster growth of the rural population compared to job creation in rural areas has fueled rural-to-urban migration, particularly in developing countries. This migration places immense strain on already stretched urban infrastructure and services.

Addressing rural poverty, improving living conditions, and creating employment and educational opportunities in rural areas are critical steps needed to manage migration and reduce pressure on cities.

Recognizing and leveraging the complementary relationship and linkages between rural and urban areas, by balancing their diverse economic, social, and environmental needs, is essential for sustainable development.

Exercises

Choose The Right Answer From The Four Alternatives Given Below.

Answer The Following Questions In About 30 Words.

Answer The Following Questions In Not More Than 150 Words.

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